The Religious Roots of the Syrian Conflict:
The Remaking of the Fertile Crescent
The Remaking of the Fertile Crescent
Introduction
The bloody sectarian conflicts ravaging Syria and Iraq today are not new but echoes of violent struggles that have plagued the region for over a thousand years. In each era, these massacres have served as tools for enforcing religious conformity, punishing dissent, suppressing revolts, or cleansing entire communities deemed heretical. Whether instigated by religious figures acting independently or in alliance with political rulers, sectarian violence has shaped the region’s history. Power struggles over land and resources have consistently been reframed through a sectarian lens, further entrenching religious divides. In this introduction, I place the book within the broader debate on the "clash of civilizations" and contemporary discussions about the Syrian conflict. A roadmap of the book’s themes and arguments follows, setting the stage for an in-depth exploration of the religious foundations of the Syrian crisis.
Chapter 1: The Significance of Religious Identity
To grasp the Syrian conflict, one must first understand the profound role religious identity plays in shaping society in the Fertile Crescent. In this diverse and deeply sectarian landscape, religious affiliation dictates social values, economic survival, and personal relationships. Places of worship serve as more than spiritual centers; they provide networks for employment, security, aid, and companionship. These bonds create an almost unbreakable cycle of mutual dependence, reinforcing sectarian loyalty at the expense of national unity. When one’s livelihood is tied to sectarian affiliation, national identity becomes secondary, and sectarianism strengthens its grip, making religious fractures all the more potent.
Chapter 2: The Fertile Crescent Meets the Muslim Arabs
Seventh-century Greek and Syriac chronicles paint a picture of how the region's Christian sects perceived the Muslim Arab conquerors. Contrary to the popular notion of Islam being forced upon the inhabitants by the sword, these historical accounts suggest a more complex reality. While non-Muslims faced severe restrictions and social marginalization, forced conversions were not the primary method of spreading Islam—except for pagans and Arab Christians, who faced greater pressure. The Muslim rulers' policy of tolerance toward Jews and Christians, however, came at a cost: submission to an intricate web of repressive laws that eroded any sense of shared collective identity among the region’s diverse populations.
Chapter 3: Formation of the Jewish Identity
Jewish identity in the Fertile Crescent was forged through centuries of displacement, persecution, and adaptation. This chapter traces the biblical and historical events that shaped the Jewish communities of the region. However, since the majority of Jews who once lived in the Fertile Crescent have since migrated to Israel and the West, the book does not focus on their modern political presence. Instead, it examines Israel’s role in shaping the geopolitical landscape of Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq, particularly in moments of external shocks that have influenced the trajectory of these nation-states.
Chapter 4: Formation of Christian Sectarian Identities
The Christian sectarian divisions that persist in the Middle East today were not merely the product of theological disputes but were born out of political necessity, survival strategies, and external pressures. This chapter lays out a timeline of how various Christian sects emerged and became entrenched in the social fabric of the Fertile Crescent. It explores how these groups, conditioned to distrust any authority beyond their immediate religious and familial circles, resisted national integration. Over time, sectarian identity overshadowed nationalist sentiment, rendering the modern nation-state fragile and its institutions ineffective.
Chapter 5: Formation of Muslim Sectarian Identities
The schism between Sunni and Shia Islam began as a struggle over political leadership but evolved into a deeply theological and ideological divide that has shaped the Muslim world for centuries. This chapter traces the origins of these sects, outlining the key figures, events, and doctrines that defined them. The Shia are categorized into Twelver, Ismaili, Druze, and Alawi groups, while Sunni Islam is divided into Mainstream, Sufi, Wahhabi, and the Muslim Brotherhood factions. Understanding these sects’ core beliefs and rivalries is crucial to making sense of the ongoing intra-Muslim conflicts that continue to tear the region apart.
Chapter 6: The Islamization of the Fertile Crescent
The transformation of the Fertile Crescent into an Islamic stronghold was not instantaneous but the result of a centuries-long process. By the twelfth century, a rigid religious orthodoxy had taken hold, stifling philosophical inquiry and intellectual debate. Religious authorities discouraged independent moral reasoning, urging believers to defer to clerics for guidance. As these clerics gained influence, they established new religious schools that systematically excluded rational sciences and promoted dogma over discourse. The long-term consequence was a society that saw dissent as heresy and upheld religious judgments against Christians, Jews, and heterodox Muslims—a legacy that still shapes the region today.
Chapter 7: Social and Psychological Roots of Religious Conflict
Why have sectarian tensions persisted in the Fertile Crescent while fading elsewhere? This chapter delves into the social and psychological forces that sustain religious conflict. It examines why tensions among Christian sects have largely dissipated, while Muslim sectarian strife remains potent. Dominant religious groups have historically demanded rigid adherence to their symbols, beliefs, and value systems, branding nonconformists as heretics, apostates, or infidels. This rejection of diversity has turned seemingly secular conflicts into sectarian showdowns, making violent eruptions inevitable.
Chapter 8: The New Media and the Islamic Awakening
With the rise of satellite television and internet broadcasting, religious leaders have transformed into political entrepreneurs, using media platforms to bypass state censorship and directly shape public opinion. Over the past two decades, this new media landscape has fueled the decline of secular ideologies, amplifying sectarian rivalries instead. By making previously private religious sentiments public, media outlets have emboldened sectarian identities, turning them into rallying points for political and social mobilization. This shift has not only deepened religious divides but has also intensified the struggle for power among sect leaders.
Chapter 9: From the Arab Spring to the Revolt of the Sunna
While the West saw the Arab Spring as a democratic uprising against tyranny, most Syrians recognized it as the continuation of a decades-old battle between Islamists and the secular state. This chapter chronicles the Syrian regime’s struggle to maintain a secular government while suppressing growing Islamist sentiments. Economic disparities between urban elites and rural populations further fueled unrest, ultimately transforming youth protests into a Sunni-led rebellion. The ensuing violence triggered waves of sectarian cleansing, paving the way for the eventual fragmentation of the Fertile Crescent along sectarian lines.
Chapter 10: The Remaking of the Fertile Crescent
In the Fertile Crescent, kinship and sectarian loyalties take precedence over abstract moral principles, rendering legal and national institutions weak and ineffective. Without a secular foundation, modern state structures struggle to regulate social and economic interactions, as neither the ruling elites nor the population accept impersonal legal authority. Against this backdrop, foreign powers are redrawing the region’s map along sectarian lines, intensifying the Sunni-Shia struggle for dominance. This power struggle, fueled by competition for legitimacy in confronting Israel, threatens to plunge the region into perpetual conflict.
Chapter 11: Aleppo War Photographs, 2012–14
This chapter unveils a gripping visual saga of Aleppo’s brutal battle, where government forces and al-Qaida-affiliated fighters waged a ferocious war for control. Through the lens of Hagop Vanesian and myself—both sons of this ancient, wounded city—these haunting photographs bring to life the apocalyptic landscapes of war-torn neighborhoods between 2012 and 2014. Shot exclusively from government-controlled areas, these images stand as raw, unfiltered testimony to the staggering destruction and the immense human toll of sectarian conflict. Each frame whispers stories of survival, loss, and the indomitable spirit of a city caught in the storm of history.